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The Republic of Uzbekistan is a doubly landlocked country in Central Asia. It shares borders with Kazakhstan to the west and to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the east, and Afghanistan and Turkmenistan to the south.
History
Main article: History of Uzbekistan
For thousands of years the present area of Uzbekistan was a part of the Persian Empire. Before the gradual arrival of the Turkic invaders the area was populated by the Persian-speaking people of Iranian stock who still comprise a large minority in Uzbekistan and are called Tajiks today. The area was a bone of contention between the Uzbek emirs and the Persian Kings for many centuries.
In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand, and spread into Central Asia. The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. Following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 a second less intensive phase followed. At the start of the 19th century there were some 2000 miles separating British India and the outlying regions of the Tsarist Russia. Much of the land in between was unmapped.
By the beginning of the 20th century, Central Asia was firmly in the hands of Russia and despite some early resistance to Bolsheviks, Uzbekistan and the rest of Central Asia became a part of the Soviet Union.
On September 1, 1991, Uzbekistan reluctantly declared independence. While the Baltic States led the fight for independence, Central Asian states were afraid of it. "The centrifugal forces pulling the Union apart were weakest in Central Asia. Well after the August 1991 coup attempt, all Central Asian countries believed that the Union might somehow be preserved," wrote Michael McFaul in Russia's Unfinished Revolution.
On May 13, 2005, protests broke out in Andijan over the imprisonment of 23 Muslims accused of being Islamist extremists. Soldiers started to fire on the protestors, leaving at least nine of them dead. The protestors took thirty hostages as a result. On the same day in Tashkent, a suspected suicide bomber was shot dead outside the Israeli Embassy.
Politics
Main article: Politics of Uzbekistan
Constitutionally, the Government of Uzbekistan provides for separation of powers, freedom of speech, and representative government. In reality, the executive holds almost all power. The judiciary lacks independence and the legislature, which meets only a few days each year, has little power to shape laws. The president selects and replaces provincial governors. Under terms of a December 1995 referendum, Karimov's first term was extended. Another national referendum was held January 27, 2002 to yet again extend Karimov's term. The referendum passed and Karimov's term was extended by act of the parliament to December 2007. Most international observers refused to participate in the process and did not recognize the results, dismissing them as not meeting basic standards. The 2002 referendum also included a plan to create a bicameral parliament. The building to house the new parliament is currently under construction. Elections for the new bicameral parliament took place on December 26, but no truly independent opposition candidates or parties were able to take part. The OSCE limited observation mission concluded that the elections fell significantly short of OSCE commitments and other international standards for democratic elections. Several political parties have been formed with government approval but have yet to show interest in advocating alternatives to government policy. Similarly, although multiple media outlets (radio, TV, newspaper) have been established, these either remain under government control or rarely broach political topics. Independent political parties were allowed to organize, recruit members, and hold conventions and press conferences, but have been denied registration under restrictive registration procedures. Terrorist bombings were carried out March 28-April 1, 2004 in Tashkent and Bukhara. It is not yet clear who committed the attacks. The government reaction to the attacks, thus far, has been restrained.
History of violence in Uzbekistan since 1989
Following is a chronology of major political events in Uzbekistan since Karimov assumed leadership of the Uzbek Communist Party in 1989:
1989 - Islam Karimov, the orphan son of a Tajik mother and Uzbek father, becomes leader of Uzbek Communist Party. - Violent attacks take place against minorities in Ferghana Valley. Nationalist movement Birlik (Unity) is founded.
1991 - Uzbekistan declares independence from the Soviet Union. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the country joins the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) -- a grouping of former Soviet republics. - Karimov is returned as president in elections in which few opposition groups are allowed to field candidates.
1992 - Karimov bans the Birlik and Erk (Freedom) parties. Large numbers of opposition party members are arrested for alleged anti-state activities.
1995 - A number of Erk party activists are given prison sentences for allegedly conspiring to oust the government.
1999 - Bomb blasts in the capital, Tashkent, kill more than a dozen people. Karimov blames the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU). -IMU broadcasts a declaration of jihad from a radio station in Iran demanding the resignation of the Uzbek leadership. -IMU insurgents launch a series of attacks against government forces from mountain hideouts.
2000 - Karimov is re-elected president. Western observers call the elections neither free nor fair. - New York-based Human Rights Watch accuses Uzbekistan of widespread use of torture.
June 2001 - Uzbekistan jails 73 people for up to 18 years for aiding Islamic extremists in its southern Surkhandarya region in 2000.
October - Uzbekistan allows the United States military to use its airbases for attacking the Taliban in Afghanistan.
January 2002 - Karimov wins backing for extending his presidential term from five to seven years in a referendum derided by the West as a ploy to hang on to power.
August - Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan military leader Juma Namangany is reported killed.
June 2003 - Erk opposition party holds first formal meeting since it was banned 11 years earlier.
December - Karimov sacks Prime Minister Otkir Sultanov, citing the country's poorest cotton harvest on record. Shavkat Mirziyayev is appointed to replace him.
March 2004 - Uzbek special forces storm a suspected Islamic militants' hideout, killing up to 23 people after a day-long siege.
July - Suicide bombers target U.S. and Israeli embassies in Tashkent. A third blast hits a state prosecutor's office, killing three people.
November - New restrictions on trading practices lead to civil disorder in eastern town of Kokand. Several thousand people are reported to have taken part in street protests.
May 13, 2005 - Hundreds are feared dead when Uzbek troops fire on thousands of protesters in the eastern town of Andizhan. Uzbek authorities maintain that only 176 people died during the clashes, most of them "terrorists" and their own soldiers. Conservative estimates put the death toll around 500[1], with other sources citing as many as 700[2] to 1000[3] killed during the clashes.
Human Rights
Uzbekistan is nominally democratic but has been described as a police state. Several prominent opponents of the government have fled, and others have been arrested. The government severely represses those it suspects of Islamic extremism, particularly those it suspects of membership in the banned Party of Islamic Liberation (Hizb ut-Tahrir). Some 5,300 to 5,800 suspected extremists are incarcerated.
As Britain's ambassador to Uzbekistan, Craig Murray, repeatedly spoke out against human rights abuse by the Karimov regime, most famously the case of Muzafar Avazov, believed to have been boiled alive by the Uzbek security forces. He also raised strong concerns behind closed doors. In a series of confidential memos wired back to London between 2002 and 2004, Murray criticised the use by Britain and other Western democracies of information extracted from "tortured dupes" by the Uzbek authorities. Murray argued that by accepting such information, Britain was encouraging further abuses, in contravention of international law, and the United Nations Convention Against Torture, of which Britain is a signatory.
In October 2004, one of Murray's memos was leaked to the Financial Times. Shortly afterwards Murray was removed from his post by his employers, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and recalled to London. At this point Murray became openly critical of the British government's acceptance of information extracted under torture, giving a series of media interviews condemning the policy. In response to Murray's public criticisms, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office began disciplinary action against him, and Murray resigned shortly afterwards. No misconduct by him was proven. The FCO itself is being investigated by the National Audit Office because of accusations of victimisation, bullying and intimidating its own staff, as reported in the Sunday Times (London) on 20 March 2005.
Murray later stated that he felt that he had unwittingly stumbled upon what has been called "torture by proxy" - see also "extraordinary rendition". Murray claimed to have seen evidence that Western countries were purposely moving people to regimes and nations, including Uzbekistan, where it was known that information would be extracted by torture, and made available to them.
Prison conditions remain very poor, particularly for those convicted of extremist activities, and a number of such prisoners are believed to have died over the past several years from prison disease and abuse. The police force and the intelligence service use torture as a routine investigation technique. No independent political parties have been registered, although they were for the first time able to conduct grass-roots activities and to convene organizing congresses. Following the visit of the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture, the Government of Uzbekistan drafted an Action Plan to implement the Special Rapporteur's recommendations.
In a report dated 21 March 2005, Amnesty International stated that:
- Thousands of people have been detained and imprisoned in Uzbekistan on accusations of "religious extremism". Among them are members and presumed members of independent Islamic congregations, members of banned Islamist and secular opposition parties and movements, and their relatives. Amnesty International has received persistent allegations that police have tortured many of those arrested to extract 'confessions'. Heavy sentences, including death sentences, have been imposed after trials which appear to have been grossly unfair.
In the area of freedom of expression, the Karimov regime maintains an iron grip on the country's media. State media routinely black out coverage of bombings by Islamic insurgents while foreign journalists and media outlets are harassed for reporting on growing unrest. Authorities also block Web sites that provide independent news, including those of Arena and the new Uzbek-language BBC.
According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, Uzbekistan is the leading jailer of journalists in Europe and Central Asia, with four behind bars as of December 2004. Reporters Without Borders says the fight against terrorism is used as an excuse by authorities to step up their crackdown on independent media.
In May 2005, several hundred demonstrators were killed after Uzbek troops fired into a crowd protesting against the imprisonment of 23 local businessmen. (For further details, see May 2005 unrest in Uzbekistan, and news, below.)
Recently, a Uzbekistan pastor facing up to eight years in prison for leading an unregistered church is asking for the prayers of fellow Christian believers in the West, says the Voice of the Martyrs, an organization fighting for the persecuted church around the world.
Two members of the Bethany Protestant Church in Tashkent have already been punished for "illegally" teaching their faith, while six others – including Pastor Nikolai Shevchenko – are due to face trial next month for leading an unregistered religious organization.
The church has repeatedly been denied registration in a district of the city where mosques are banned also.
On June 10, 2005 a criminal court sentenced Nail Kalinkin to 15 days in prison and fined his wife, Marina, the equivalent of $68. They were found guilty of expounding the meaning of biblical texts.
Uniformed and plain clothes police officers burst into the Bethany Church during the Sunday service June 12. The authorities cut short the service, saying that the church could not meet there any more. They demanded the pastors write statements explaining the reason for the meeting.
Shevchenko and five other church members were taken to the police station.
When interrogations began, Shevchenko asked for an attorney to be present.
"Those at the police station answered us that they required neither lawyer nor summons, because all they needed was to destroy us," he said.
He has been repeatedly fined since 2000 for leading an unregistered religious community. In 2001, he was accused of unlawful religious activity and faced criminal charges, but the case was closed after pressure from the international community.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan is a dry, double-landlocked country of which 10% consists of intensely cultivated, irrigated river valleys. It is one of two double-landlocked countries in the world - the other being Liechtenstein, although in the case of Uzbekistan this is less clear, since it has borders with two countries (Kazakhstan in the north and Turkmenistan in the south) bordering the landlocked but non-freshwater Caspian Sea from which ships can reach the Sea of Azov and thus the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the oceans.
The highest point in Uzbekistan is Adelunga Toghi at 4301 meters.
See also: List of cities in Uzbekistan
Subdivisions
Main article: Subdivisions of Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan is divided into 12 provinces (viloyatlar, singular - viloyati), 1 autonomous republic (respublika), and 1 independent city (shahar); Names are given below in the Uzbek language, although numerous variations of the transliterations of each name exist.
| Division |
Capital City |
Area (sq. km) |
Population |
Key |
| Andijon Viloyati |
Andijon |
4,200 |
1,899,000 |
2 |
| Buxoro Viloyati |
Buxoro (Bukhara) |
39,400 |
1,384,700 |
3 |
| Farg'ona Viloyati |
Farg'ona (Fergana) |
6,800 |
2,597,000 |
4 |
| Jizzax Viloyati |
Jizzax |
20,500 |
910,500 |
5 |
| Xorazm Viloyati |
Urganch |
6,300 |
1,200,000 |
13 |
| Namangan Viloyati |
Namangan |
7,900 |
1,862,000 |
6 |
| Navoiy Viloyati |
Navoiy |
110,800 |
767,500 |
7 |
| Qashqadaryo Viloyati |
Qarshi |
28,400 |
2,029,000 |
8 |
| Qoraqalpog'iston Respublikasi |
Nukus |
160,000 |
1,200,000 |
14 |
| Samarqand Viloyati |
Samarqand |
16,400 |
2,322,000 |
9 |
| Sirdaryo Viloyati |
Guliston |
5,100 |
648,100 |
10 |
| Surxondaryo Viloyati |
Termez |
20,800 |
1,676,000 |
11 |
| Toshkent Viloyati |
Toshkent (Tashkent) |
15,300 |
4,450,000 |
12 |
The statistics for Toshkent Viloyati also include the statistics for Toshkent shahar.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan was one of the poorest areas of the former Soviet Union with more than 60% of its population living in densely populated rural communities. Uzbekistan is now the world's third largest cotton exporter, a major producer of gold and natural gas, and a regionally significant producer of chemicals and machinery.
Following independence in December 1991, the government sought to prop up its Soviet-style command economy with subsidies and tight controls on production and prices. Faced with high rates of inflation, however, the government began to reform in mid-1994, by introducing tighter monetary policies, expanding privatization, slightly reducing the role of the state in the economy, and improving the environment for foreign investors. The state continues to be a dominating influence in the economy, and reforms have so far failed to bring about structural changes. The IMF suspended Uzbekistan's $185 million standby arrangement in late 1996 because of governmental steps that made fulfillment of Fund conditions impossible. Uzbekistan has responded to the negative external conditions generated by the Asian and Russian financial crises by tightening export and currency controls within its already largely closed economy. Economic policies that have repelled foreign investment are a major factor in the economy's stagnation. A growing debt burden, persistent inflation, and a poor business climate cloud growth prospects in 2000.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan is Central Asia's most populous country. Its 25 million people, concentrated in the south and east of the country, are nearly half the region's total population. Uzbekistan had been one of the poorest republics of the Soviet Union; much of its population was engaged in cotton farming in small rural communities. The population continues to be heavily rural and dependent on farming for its livelihood. Uzbek is the predominant ethnic group. Other ethnic groups include Russian 5.5%, Tajik 15%, Korean 4.7%, Kazakh 3%, Karakalpak 2.5%, and Tatar 1.5%. The nation is 88% Sunni Muslim and 9% Eastern Orthodox. Uzbek is the official state language; however, Russian is the de facto language for interethnic communication, including much day-to-day government and business use.
The educational system has achieved 97% literacy, and the mean amount of schooling for both men and women is 11 years. However, due to budget constraints and other transitional problems following the collapse of the Soviet Union, texts and other school supplies, teaching methods, curricula, and educational institutions are outdated, inappropriate, and poorly kept. Additionally, the proportion of school-aged persons enrolled has been dropping. Although the government is concerned about this, budgets remain tight. Similarly, in health care, life expectancy is long, but after the breakup of the Soviet Union, health care resources have declined, reducing health care quality, accessibility, and efficiency.
Communications
Main article: Communications in Uzbekistan
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Transportation
Main article: Transportation in Uzbekistan
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Military
Uzbekistan possesses the largest and most competent military forces in the Central Asian region, having around 65,000 people in uniform. Its structure is inherited from the Soviet armed forces, although it is moving rapidly toward a fully restructured organization, which will eventually be built around light and Special Forces. The Uzbek Armed Forces' equipment is not modern, and training, while improving, is neither uniform nor adequate yet for its new mission of territorial security. The government has accepted the arms control obligations of the former Soviet Union, acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (as a non-nuclear state), and has supported an active program by the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) in western Uzbekistan (Nukus and Vozrozhdeniye Island). The Government of Uzbekistan spends about 3.7% of GDP on the military but has received a growing infusion of Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and other security assistance funds since 1998. Uzbekistan approved U.S. Central Command's request for access to a vital military air base in southern Uzbekistan following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the U.S.
Main article: Military of Uzbekistan
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Foreign relations
Uzbekistan joined the Commonwealth of Independent States in December 1991. However, it is opposed to reintegration and withdrew from the CIS collective security arrangement in 1999. Since that time, Uzbekistan has participated in the CIS peacekeeping force in Tajikistan and in UN-organized groups to help resolve the Tajik and Afghan conflicts, both of which it sees as posing threats to its own stability. Uzbekistan is an active supporter of U.S. efforts against worldwide terrorism and joined the coalitions that have dealt with both Afghanistan and Iraq. It is a member of the United Nations, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, Partnership for Peace, and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). It belongs to the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and the Economic Cooperation Organization--comprised of the five Central Asian countries, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. In 1999, Uzbekistan joined the GUAM alliance (Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova), which was formed in 1997 (making it GUUAM). Uzbekistan is also a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and hosts the SCO’s Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) in Tashkent. Uzbekistan also joined the new Central Asian Cooperation Organization (CACO) in 2002. The CACO consists of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. It is a founding member of and remains involved in the Central Asian Union, formed with Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, joined in March 1998 by Tajikistan.
Main article: Foreign relations of Uzbekistan Previously close to Washington, the government of Uzkekistan has restricted American military use of the airbase at Karshi-Khanabadwhich is used for air operations in neighboring Afghanistan. See AP article
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Culture
Main article: Culture of Uzbekistan
External links
Democracy-related links
News
- The Ex-Representative of the Mossad in Moscow on Hizb ut-Tahrir in Uzbekistan
- The Guardian, 20 May 2005 "Uzbekistan rejects calls for an investigation"
- Peter Boehm and Andrew Osborn, The Independent, 22 May 2005, "Uzbekistan: 'In the narrow lane, the machine guns clattered remorselessly for two hours'"
- Michael Andersen, The Spectator, 26 May 2005, "Base Motives"
- BBC News, 29 May 2005, "US senators push for Uzbek probe"
- BBC News, 7 June 2005, "Uzbek crackdown 'a massacre'
http://www.uzbekistanerk.org/
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